Whereas large numbers of migrants from Syria, Iraq, Libya, and Afghanistan crossed the Mediterranean to Italy and Greece, those from Asia and Africa reached the continent via land through Turkey. In the mid-1990s, the United States also set aside sixty thousand annual slots for Hong Kong immigrants, before the British returned the colony to China in 1997. A new preference system was introduced, as well as a labor certification program. The 1960s also witnessed a significant increase of immigrants from other western hemisphere nations, including some 200,000 Cubans, 100,000 Dominicans, and 70,000 Colombians. Some students who came to seek advanced degrees were able to adjust their legal status upon graduation and receiving U.S.-based job offers. Indonesia, the worlds fourth most populous nation, is still underrepresented, but it has the potential to send more immigrants. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History, Department of Asian American Studies, University of California, Santa Barbara, The United States in International Migration, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.72, Net Migration from Mexico Falls to Zeroand Perhaps Less, Message to Congress on Repeal of the Chinese Exclusion, The Prop 187 Effect: How the California GOP Lost Their Way and Implications for 2014 and Beyond, Polish Immigration and the American Working Class. By the 1980s, the vast majority of immigrants to the United States were from Asian and western hemisphere countries (see Figure 1). Later, the government also developed ways to enable these refugees to become permanent immigrants.10 The number of refugees admitted during the war was relatively small, but the measures and creative ways to accommodate them and the public debate involved had a lasting impact on U.S. immigration policies. Moreover, as the pace of economic growth quickened, Germany, France, Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands also became destinations of international migration, attracting large numbers of immigrants from southern Europe, the Balkans, Turkey, and Asia.

Figure 3: U.S. Share of International Migrant Population, 19602013. Most successful asylum petitions were filed by individuals from communist countries. Today, European immigrants and their descendants represent less than two-thirds of the American population, as the growth of immigrants from the western hemisphere, Asia, and Africa and their U.S.-born descendants has continued. The Asian population in the United States, however, remained small (about a quarter million) before World War II. A program administered by the Department of Homeland Security in 2006 also brought six thousand medical professionals from Cuba. 10. There are large Mexican communities in Houston, Los Angeles, San Diego, Chicago, and New York, as well as communities of Cubans in Miami, Chinese in New York and Los Angeles, Koreans in Los Angles, and Vietnamese in Orange County. Jamaica and Haiti are two major Caribbean sending nations.

Data include Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia, and Serbia and Montenegro. Matias F. Travieso-Diaz, Immigration Challenges and Opportunities in a Post-Transition Cuba, Berkeley Journal of International Law 16.2 (1998): 234266. These changes have affected the American population and American society in profound ways. 35. Scholars on Mexican immigration often take transnational approaches, considering circumstances in both sending and receiving countries. Several metropolitan areas are home to Spanish- or Asian-language television networks, entertaining newcomers with films, soap opera, and music programs produced in Latin America or Asia.

It does not affect the lives of millions. Since the Bracero Program, the number of unauthorized immigrants from Mexico has increased, as many migrants adopted a pattern of back-and-forth movement across the border. Special reports published by the DHS and INS provide additional details and interpretations. The United States has been the leading destination of international migration since the 1970s and will probably continue to hold this position for many years to come. Enjoying a relatively high standard of living during the economic boom, the Japanese had little incentive to move abroad.

This has become more evident as the world has grown more and more integrated. 38.

Although territorial annexation and the need for Mexican labor for industrial and agricultural developments drove Mexican immigration to the United States since the late 19th century, deportation of Mexican workers had prevented many Mexicans from attaining permanent residency in the United States. The new law also tightened border patrols and imposed penalties for hiring undocumented immigrants, but several million more still arrived between 1990 and 2010. An annual average of more than 30,000 individuals gained entry since then. Several books provide general accounts of immigration after 1945, including David M Reimers, Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America; Leonard Dinnerstein and David M. Reimers, The World Comes to America: Immigration to the United States Since 1945; and Susan A. Martin, A Nation of Immigrants. Endorsed by Congress and signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Magnuson Act, named for Representative Warren G. Magnuson (D-WA), repealed all the Chinese exclusion acts, provided an annual quota of 105 for Chinese immigration, and granted Chinese immigrants naturalization rights. Jobs provided by ethnic enclaves are especially important to newcomers without marketable skills, English proficiency, or work permits. Changes in U.S. immigration policies during and after World War II had a great impact on contemporary immigration. There is no indication that the inflow of unauthorized immigrants will diminish soon. 19. Immigration from China has been shaped by contemporary Chinese history and U.S.-China relations. The end of Chinese exclusion in 1943 was hardly a genuine measure of immigration reform. In the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ending the Mexican-American War, the United States annexed northern Mexico, making some fifty thousand Mexicans living in that region American residents. A major shift was the sources of immigration. Two years after the repeal of Chinese exclusion, the 1945 War Brides Act granted admissions to spouses and children of U.S. military personnel, allowing Chinese American war veterans to bring over their family members. Between 1992 and 2007, more than 131,000 individuals from war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina were granted asylum. These laws prevented Asian immigration and effectively limited the growth of the Asian American population. Annual immigration statistics compiled by the U.S. Countries in the western hemisphere emerged as a leading source in the 1960s, whereas Europeans and Asians reversed their positions in immigration statistics: Between 1950 and 1959, more than half (56.2 percent) of the immigrants admitted were Europeans, and only a fraction (5.4 percent) were Asians. Ethiopia began to take the lead in 2002, followed by Egypt, Liberia, Morocco, and South Africa. More significant was the creation of a new immigration enforcement machinery to screen individuals and place immigrant agencies under the direction of the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in 2003. Yearbooks of Immigration Statistics, Department of Homeland Security. In the 1950s, Asias share of immigration was rather insignificant compared to that of Europe. Those who arrived before 1982 were eligible for amnesty under IRCA. The development of the European Union in the 1990s, with the creation of European citizenship, enabled free movements of goods, services, and capital, as well as people. 2. 20.

In 1940, the government used administrative measures to accept thousands of individuals who escaped from Germany and German-occupied Europe. As streams of newcomers arrived from the western hemisphere, Asia, and Africa, immigration from Europe declined, and many European nations also began to shift from sources of U.S. immigration to destinations of international migration. In addition to family members and students, Indian immigration to the United States was facilitated by the employment-based preference. By 2000, 1.1 million Vietnamese have been admitted, along with 170,000 Cambodians and 340,000 Laotians. In 1946 this privilege was extended to alien fiances and fiancs. At the same time, however, Hispanic Americans and Asian American citizens are registering to vote in increasing numbers, making anti-immigration measures more difficult to enforce. Several thousand Haitians fled from the increasingly authoritarian government before 1960. Most of the ninety thousand Haitians who came between 1961 and 1980 were poor and had little education; they left to escape poverty, violence, and political turmoil. In the chaotic exodus of the Mariel boatlift in 1980, which lasted for 162 days, the United States Coast Guard assisted more than one thousand vessels carrying refugees from the small fishing port of Mariel west of Havana to South Florida, bringing 125,000 individuals, including a large number of blacks and unskilled workers. It is relatively easy for the migrants to move around and resettle within the European Union. Most of the discussions on pre-1965 policies are still relevant to contemporary immigration issues.38, For European immigration, see Leo Lucassen, The Immigrant Threat: The Integration of Old and New Migrants in Western Europe Since 1850. Because many of the newcomers had no connections in the United States, assistance was provided through voluntary social service networks (VOLAGS). The new law also opened the door for professional labor, allowing Asians with occupational qualifications to come. Several European countries, such as Germany, Britain, France, Italy, and Sweden have become destinations for both European migrants and international migrants. Once the United States incorporated the Philippines as a territory after the Spanish-American War, Filipinos could enter freely. Studies on Mexican immigration, which utilized data from both the United States and Mexico, offer a deeper understanding of human migration involving borders and borderlands. Although the number of quota immigrants granted to Asian nations was small, once classified as admissible, some Asians were able to come using non-quota status under general immigration laws.

Western Europe itself has become a magnet for immigration. After the gradual withdrawal of American troops, North Vietnamese forces took control of the country.

Deportations of Mexican laborers and implementation of Asian exclusion limited the growth of immigrants from the western hemisphere and Asia. Although the Hart-Celler bill was endorsed by the majority of both the House of Representatives and the Senate, some scholars argue that few politicians had anticipated that the new law would change the structure of U.S. immigration. who had arrived by that year. As different parts of the world experience rapid economic growth, ideas, capital, and goods move across national borders frequently. And finally, the 1924 Immigration Act created an Asia-Pacific Triangle to bar immigrants from all Asian countries. A 1917 immigration law denied entry to those from the British colony in India. Most Asian countries did not have large population base in the United States at the time. Instead, the government used this goodwill gesture to boost Chinas resistance against Japanese military aggression in the Pacific. Refugee policies formulated during this period reflected this change. As a result, Japan has not filled the immigration quota provided by the 1965 law. The increasing pressure to accept more and more political refugees and allow them to adjust their legal status made immigration reform inevitable. In addition to more relaxed admission policies, the federal government provided comprehensive assistances to Cuban, Southeast Asian, and other refugee groups with temporary cash assistance, food distribution, medical care, English classes, and job training. Lawrence Cardoso, Mexican Emigration to the United States, 18971931 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1980). 42. More and more migrants have been participants in a wide range of transnational activities, especially those with the means to do so, and they have preserved ties to their country of origin.

To many Mexican peasants, seasonal work in the United States became an economic strategy, as small savings from temporary employment away from home provided a much needed financial supplement. As members of the poorest immigrant group, many Haitians could not find decent jobs due to their limited education levels, lack of English proficiency, and in some cases poor health. Also see Douglas Massey, Jorge Durant, and Noland J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration. More recent immigration statistics provided yet another sharp contrast. In the context of international migration, Figure 3 shows that the United States has become one of many destinations for migrants. Deportation is another factor, although only about 14 percent of the returning migrants were deported.35 Whereas U.S. immigration statistics provide the most reliable data on arrivals, migrants who left for other destinations are difficult to track. With highly effective tools and sophisticated databases, the government could also track, apprehend, and remove unauthorized immigrants who posed no security threat.25 The government also tied border patrol to national security, adding traffic checkpoints along the borders.

His mission was accomplished in the 1854 Treaty of Kanagawa. Around 1900, the United States began to recruit impoverished rural workers from west-central Mexican states. Citizenship and Immigration Services, Characters of H-1B Specialty Occupation Workers Report for Fiscal Year 2014. Only 335 Vietnamese entered in the 1950s, and some 4,300 more came in the 1960s.

The gap has widened in recent decades, as Europes share of all immigrants declined further, to 13.1 percent from 2000 to 2009. Individuals from eligible countries not related to citizens or permanent residents in the United States could obtain a diversity visa through a lottery. For the first time, Asian countries were placed on the same basis as European countries.

Migrants who gained entry to one European country could also relocate to another. This allowed Mexican immigrants to take a large share of the hemisphere quota. At the same time, economic recovery in western European countries provided local opportunities, giving less incentive for people to migrate. 30. 31. Others, however, see it as progressive. The law also imposed a ceiling of 120,000 for the western hemisphere, with no limit for individual nations. Interventions by the United States the in affairs of Latin American countries played an important role in shaping immigration policies toward these countries. Of the 312 million Americans in 2011, about 13 percent were foreign-born. 29. This means that Europeans have many options if they want to relocate. The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act allowed 3.3 million undocumented individuals to legalize but could not solve the problem. This does not mean anti-immigration sentiment has disappeared. Coming from a western hemisphere nation, the Cubans were not subject to quota restrictions. The United States is still attracting European immigrants, especially those with family connections and marketable skills. 37. The repeal of Chinese exclusion opened the door for other Asian groups almost immediately. In addition to the existing ethnic Japanese population, thousands of Japanese women arrived as wives of U.S. servicemen. The Japanese and Chinese were the two largest Asian immigrant groups in 1960, but neither Japan nor China was a major source of immigration in the 1960s and 1970s. The 1965 Immigration Act had a profound impact on Asian immigration. In the first three decades of the 20th century, 80 percent of the roughly 28 million immigrants originated from Europe. After World War II, Japan built close ties with the United States. Western hemisphere immigrants, although not limited by the new preference system, were subject to labor clearance. In 1997, the Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act granted amnesty to tens of thousands of Central Americans (Nicaraguans, Salvadorans, Guatemalans, etc.) As the worlds leader in higher education and high-tech industry, the United States has been the most important destination for students seeking advanced degrees. As was the case before World War II, policies concerning immigration and border control are of great importance in state and national politics. In the two decades after World War II, some Indian students came to study science, engineering, medicine, and business. New immigrants have changed the nations urban landscape. Those that came between 1965 and 1973 were more numerous but less well-to-do. The scope of this essay does not allow a lengthy analysis of every sending nation, but it is a safe bet that future sources of immigration will be more diverse. Warren G. Magnuson to William Green, September 28, 1943, Magnuson Papers, University of Washington Libraries. In large cities bilingual or multilingual business signs can be seen everywhere. Moreover, migration means different things to different people. Pressure to accommodate refugees began during the war. For almost a century after the slave trade, Africa sent relatively few immigrants to the United States. Leo Lucassen, The Immigrant Threat: The Integration of Old and New Migrants in Western Europe Since 1850 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005); Martin A. Schain, The Politics of Immigration in France, Britain, and the United States (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); Linda Almeida, Irish Immigrants in New York City, 19451995 (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2001); Annelise Orleck, The Soviet Jewish Americans (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999); Helena Zaiecka Lopata, Polish Americans (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994); Carl J. Bon Tempo, Americans at the Gate: The United States and Refugees during the Cold War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008); and Beth B. Cohen, Case Closed: Holocaust Survivors in Postwar America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007). Jamaica was the tenth largest source of immigration in the 1970s and climbed to seventh in the following decade. Before 1945, the United States showed little interest in Southeast Asia.

Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). Beginning in the 1980s, China also sent large numbers of students each year; many of them later settled in the United States. Demand for low-wage labor in the United States and poverty at home created economic incentives for U.S.-bound migration from Latin American countries, especially in times of war, civil unrest, and violence. These slots were not filled, however, for relatively few in Hong Kong took the opportunity. In the 1950s over half of the total immigrants came from Europe, and the majority of them arrived from western European countries. 90 Stat. It ranked second, behind Mexico, for the three decades between 1970 and 2000 (see Table 2). 25. Of an estimated 11.3 million undocumented immigrants in the United States in 2012, about 59 percent were from Mexico. Among the five established Asian American communitiesChinese, Japanese, Filipino, Korean, and Indian, only three were able to benefit from the new law within a relatively short time. Several studies focus on specific groups of European immigrants, including Linda Almeida, Irish Immigrants in New York City, 19451995; Annelise Orleck, The Soviet Jewish Americans; Helena Zaiecka Lopata, Polish Americans; Carl J. Bon Tempo, Americans at the Gate: The United States and Refugees during the Cold War; and Beth B. Cohen, Case Closed: Holocaust Survivors in Postwar America.39, For general accounts of Asian immigration, see Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretive History; Uma A Segal, A Framework for Immigration: Asians in the United States; Erika Lee, The Making of Asian America: A History; and John S. Park, Elusive Citizenship: Immigration, Asian Americans, and the Paradox of Civil Rights. David M. Reimers, Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), p. 12.